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Great Wall of China

Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China to protect the Chinese states and empires against the raids and invasions of the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian Steppe. Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC; these, later joined together and made bigger and stronger, are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built 220–206 BC by Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has been rebuilt, maintained, and enhanced; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644).

Other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor.

The Great Wall stretches from Dandong in the east to Lop Lake in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia. A comprehensive archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km (5,500 mi). This is made up of 6,259 km (3,889 mi) sections of actual wall, 359 km (223 mi) of trenches and 2,232 km (1,387 mi) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers. Another archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measure out to be 21,196 km (13,171 mi).

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China

Foreign exchange certificate

A foreign exchange certificate, sometimes abbreviated to FEC, is a tool for foreign exchange control in countries where the national currency is subject to exchange controls or is not convertible. The arrangements vary significantly case by case. Some of the main types of FEC are:

• A certificate for purchasing foreign currency at a specified rate, often for a specified purpose, such as financing imports. This type of certificates were required in many European countries after World War II.
• A certificate denominated in local currency, which the foreign citizens are required to use for some or all of their purchases. The exchange rate may be more favourable for the visitor than the official commercial rate. The purpose is to channel the foreign exchange to the state coffers instead of the black market. This type of FEC's were in use in China in 1980–1994.
• A certificate denominated in foreign currency, to which the local citizens are required to exchange any foreign currency they manage to get possession of. These certificates may be accepted as payment in specific stores, which otherwise sell goods only to foreign citizens in exchange for foreign currency. This type of FEC's were applied in the Soviet Union in 1961–1991.

Some countries which have employed FEC's or similar arrangements under some other name in the past include:

• Soviet Union
• China
• Myanmar (Burma) (until March 2013)
• East Germany (forum checks, pegged to the West German Deutsche Mark)
• Nazi Germany
• Ghana – it was illegal to import and export Ghanaian cedi banknotes (around 1980)
• North Korea
• Cuba (Today's convertible peso, to an extent, is a form of FEC)
• Czechoslovakia (Tuzex)
• Bulgaria (Corecom)
• Poland

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_exchange_certificate

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Cuba

Cuba, oficialmente la República de Cuba, es un país soberano insular del Caribe, asentado en un archipiélago del mar de las Antillas. El territorio está organizado en quince provincias y un municipio especial con La Habana como capital y ciudad más poblada.

La Isla de Cuba es la más grande de las Antillas Mayores y tiene origen orogénico. Completan el archipiélago la Isla de la Juventud y una multitud de cayos o pequeñas islas que las rodean: Cayo Coco, Cayo Guillermo, Cayo Largo del Sur y Cayo Jutías, entre otros. Colinda, al norte, con el estado estadounidense de Florida y con las Bahamas, al oeste con México y al sur con las Islas Caimán y Jamaica. Al sudeste de Cuba, se encuentra la isla de La Española.

Previo al período de la Colonización española de América iniciado en el siglo XV, el actual territorio cubano se encontraba habitado por diversos pueblos amerindios. Cuba se mantuvo como colonia española hasta 1869, y como provincia española hasta la Guerra hispano-estadounidense de 1898, desatada a partir de la intervención de Estados Unidos en la guerra de Independencia cubana. El triunfo estadounidense condujo a la independencia nominal de facto como protectorado de Estados Unidos en 1902. Durante la primera mitad del siglo XX, Cuba trató de reforzar su sistema democrático, pero tras fuertes conflictos sociales y tensiones políticas, se produjo un Golpe de Estado en 1952, que dio lugar a la dictadura de Fulgencio Batista. Batista fue derrocado por el Movimiento 26 de Julio liderado por Fidel Castro durante la Revolución cubana en 1959, pasando Castro a ser Primer Ministro, jefe de Gobierno. En 1965, se fundó el Partido Comunista de Cuba, que gobierna el país hasta la actualidad. Este fue un punto de alta conflictividad entre la Unión Soviética y los Estados Unidos, en el marco de la Guerra Fría, al punto de llevar a ambas naciones al borde de una guerra nuclear durante el desarrollo de la Crisis de los misiles de 1962.

El país es un Estado marxista-leninista con un sistema político de partido único dominado por el Partido Comunista, cuyo rol se encuentra amparado por la Constitución. Es una nación en vías de desarrollo que adopta para sí una economía planificada, cuyas principales actividades son las exportaciones de azúcar, tabaco, café, productos farmacéuticos y mano de obra especializada. Ocupa el puesto 67º en el Índice de desarrollo humano elaborado por la Organización de las Naciones Unidas, y el 5º entre los latinoamericanos, solo por detrás de Argentina, Chile, Uruguay y Panamá. En 2015, Cuba tenía el 3° IDH en Latinoamérica. De acuerdo con datos de la ONU, es el único país del mundo que cumple los dos criterios que, para la organización WWF, significan la existencia del desarrollo sostenible: desarrollo humano alto (IDH 0,8) y huella ecológica sostenible (huella < 1,8 ha/p).

Guerras de Independencia (1868-1898)

La Guerra de los Diez Años

Durante el periodo de la Guerra que por el tiempo que se extendió tomó el nombre de Guerra de los Diez Años surgieron grandes jefes revolucionarios, que tuvieron una significación histórica en las posteriores guerras y contiendas. Es el caso de Ignacio Agramonte, Antonio Maceo, Máximo Gómez, José Maceo, Vicente García González y Calixto García, entre otros muchos.El 10 de octubre de 1868 en el Ingenio "La Demajagua", que le pertenecía el hacendado Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, en la Región de Manzanillo, libera a sus esclavos y sin imponerles nada los invita a iniciar la lucha contra el colonialismo español que se imponía en Cuba. Así se iniciaba el periodo revolucionario de las luchas por la independencia de Cuba que no triunfaría hasta el 20 de mayo de 1902. En este levantamiento se traza Céspedes un programa de lucha donde expresa las causas y los objetivos del inicio de la Guerra conocido como el Manifiesto del 10 de octubre.

Source: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba#Guerras_de_Independencia_.281868-1898.29

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Rwanda-Burundi Franc

The Ruanda-Urundi franc was a currency issued for the Belgian mandate territory of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi) in East Africa between 1960 and 1964. The currency replaced the Belgian Congo franc which had also circulated in Ruanda-Urundi from 1916 until 1960 when the Belgian Congo became independent, leaving Ruanda-Urundi as the sole Belgian colonial possession in Africa. With the independence of Rwanda and Burundi in 1962, the shared Ruanda-Urundi franc continued to circulate until 1964 when it was eventually replaced by two separate national currencies.

The franc became the currency of Rwanda and Burundi in 1916, when the two countries were occupied by Belgium and the Belgian Congo franc replaced the German East African rupie. In 1960, the Belgian Congo franc was replaced by the Ruanda-Urundi franc, issued by the Banque d’Emission du Rwanda et du Burundi (Issuing Bank of Rwanda and Burundi) or BERB. This circulated after independence until January 1964, when Rwanda and Burundi introduced their own currencies, the Burundian franc and the Rwandan franc.

From 1960 to 1963, the BERB issued notes in denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 francs. In 1964, Burundi overprinted all of these denominations for use in Burundi, whilst Rwanda overprinted all but the 5 and 10 franc notes for use in Rwanda.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruanda-Urundi_franc

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Tibetan banknotes

Tibetan banknotes were first issued in January 1913 with the denominations of 5 tam (green or blue) and 10 tam (red). These were dated to the year 1658 of the Tibetan Era (which began in AD 1912 and ended in early 1913). Further issues followed later in AD 1913. All these notes are dated to the Tibetan Era year 1659, which began in February AD 1913. They are as follows: a 10 tam note (red), a 15 tam note (violet), a 25 tam note (brown or yellow), and a 50 tam note (blue or purple). Like the two earlier issues, they bear a red seal representing the authority of the Dalai Lama and a black seal which has the following inscription in 'phags pa ( also called "seal script") Tibetan script: gzhung dngul khang, and can be translated as "government treasury" or "government bank". The five tam notes continued to be printed, but the date on this notes was not changed, i.e. it remained T.E. (Tibetan Era) 1658. The early Tibetan notes were woodblock printed on locally produced paper and were hand-numbered with black ink by specially trained Tibetan calligraphists. In the 1930s they were withdrawn from circulation. They bear the following inscription on the obverse:

"Gangs ljongs bod rgyal khab chen po´i lugs zung chab

"Srid dbu brnyes kyi lo chig stong drug brgya bcu nga brgyad

"Phun tshogs sde bzhi´i dpal mnga´ phan bde´i spyi nor

"Chos srid gnyis ldan gyi rab byung bco lnga pa´i[ba ´i] shog dngul."

The following translation has been suggested for this legend:

1658 years from the founding of the religious-secular form of government in the great country of Tibet, the land of snows, paper money (shog dngul) of the 15th cycle (rab byung bco lnga) of the government of religion and politics (chos srid gnyis ldan), the universal jewel (spyi nor) of benefit and bless, endowed with the four types of auspiciousness.

In 1937 or '38 new multicolored notes with the high denomination 100 tam srang were introduced. They bear the same octagonal red seal as the early "tam" denominated notes and a black seal of a new type which bears the following inscription: Srid zhi dpal ´bar.The highest denomination note (50 tam) was often forged, and the Tibetan government decided to introduce a new multicoloured version printed in a more sophisticated manner. The legends on the obverse were printed from woodblocks, while the remaining design on both sides was machine-printed using several different metal blocks. The first notes of this new issue were dated T.E. 1672 (= AD 1926). New notes of this denomination were produced every year until T.E. 1687 (= AD 1941).

This legend refers to the Tibetan government mint. The following translations have been suggested: "Two famous Governments"; "The Glory of both (lay and religious) Governments´ houses" "May every form of being augment the good and Government, peace and progress." A freer translation would read: "A peaceful government (generates) prosperity".

The denomination of these notes was soon changed from "tam srang" to "srang" and they were given a smaller circular red seal. The 100 srang notes are machine-printed and hand-numbered; they were regularly issued between 1939 and 1945 and again between 1951 and 1959 but bear no date.

Further machine-printed "srang" denominated notes followed. In 1940 saw the issue of "10 srang" notes bearing the date T.E. 1686. These were machine-printed in three colors (red, blue and black) and carried different T.E. dates until T.E. 1694 (= AD 1948). An undated "5 srang" note of small size was issued between 1942 and 1946. Finally, an undated "25 srang" note was introduced in 1950 and was issued until 1955.

All the Tibetan srang-denominated banknotes were machine-printed on locally made paper at the government mint of Trabshi Lekhung using inks imported from India. All denominations are hand-numbered.

In 1959 these issues were withdrawn from circulation and replaced by Chinese banknotes denominated in Renminbi Yuan.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_money_of_Tibet

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Banknotes

In 1882, the government began issuing small-value paper money bearing the title "Biglietto di Stato". To begin with, there were 5- and 10-lira notes, to which 25-lira notes were occasionally added from 1895. The government also issued notes titled "Buono di Cassa" between 1893 and 1922 in denominations of 1 and 2 lire. Production of Biglietti di Stato ceased in 1925 but resumed in 1935 with notes for 1, 2, 5 and 10 lire being introduced by 1939.

The Bank of Italy began producing paper money in 1896. To begin with, 50-, 100-, 500- and 1,000-lira notes were issued. In 1918–1919, 25-lira notes were also issued but no other denominations were introduced until after the Second World War.

In 1943, the invading Allies introduced notes in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 lire. These were followed in 1944 by a series of Biglietti di Stato for 1, 2, 5 and 10 lire, which circulated until replaced by coins in the late 1940s. In 1945, the Bank of Italy introduced 5,000- and 10,000-lira notes.

In 1951, the government again issued notes, this time simply bearing the title "Repubblica Italiana". Denominations were of 50 and 100 lire (replacing the Bank of Italy notes) and they circulated until coins of these denominations were introduced in the mid-1950s. In 1966, 500-lira notes were introduced (again replacing Bank of Italy notes) which were produced until replaced in 1982 by a coin.

50,000- and 100,000-lira notes were introduced by the Bank of Italy in 1967, followed by 2,000 lire in 1973, 20,000 lire in 1975 and 500,000 lire in 1997.

In the mid-1970s, when coinage was in short supply, Italian banks printed "miniassegni" in 50- and 100-lira amounts. Technically bearer checks, they were printed in the form of banknotes and were generally accepted as substitute legal currency.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_lira

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Chihuahua (state)

Chihuahua, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City.

It is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a long border with the U.S. adjacent to the U.S. states of New Mexico and Texas.

Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres (95,543 sq mi), it is slightly larger than the United Kingdom. The state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande ("The Big State").

Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any other state in Mexico, with the exception of Durango. Due to its variant climate, the state has a large variety of fauna and flora. The state is mostly characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range, an extension of the Rocky Mountains, dominates the state's terrain and is home to the state's greatest attraction, Las Barrancas del Cobre, or Copper Canyon, a canyon system larger and deeper than the Grand Canyon. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains (around the regions of Casas Grandes, Cuauhtémoc and Parral), there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, the source of the bulk of the state's agricultural production. Most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley.

The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long been disputed by historians and linguists. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning "The place where the water of the rivers meet" (i.e., "confluence", cf. Koblenz).

Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are: Ciudad Juárez, an international manufacturing center; Chihuahua, the state capital; and Delicias, the state's main agriculture hub. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA. On the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border.

Economy

The state has the 12th-largest state economy in Mexico, accounting for 2.7% of the country’s GDP. Chihuahua has the fifth highest manufacturing GDP in Mexico and ranks second for the most factories funded by foreign investment in the country. As of 2011, the state had an estimated 396 billion pesos (31.1 billion dollars) of annual GDP. According to official federal statistical studies, the service sector accounted for the largest portion of the state economy at 59.28%; the manufacturing and industrial sector is estimated to account for 34.36% of the state's GDP, with the agricultural sector accounting for 6.36% of the state's GDP. Manufacturing sector was the principal foreign investment in the state followed by the mining sector. In 2011, the state received approximately 884 million dollars in remittances from the United States, which was 4.5% of all remittances from the United States to Mexico.

During the 1990s after NAFTA was signed, industrial development grew rapidly with foreign investment. Large factories known as maquiladoras were built to export manufactured goods to the United States and Canada. Today, most of the maquiladoras produce electronics, automobile, and aerospace components. There are more than 406 companies operating under the federal IMMEX or Prosec program in Chihuahua. The large portion of the manufacturing sector of the state is 425 factories divided into 25 industrial parks accounting for 12.47% of the maquiladoras in Mexico, which employ 294,026 people in the state. While export-driven manufacturing is one of the most important components of the state's economy, the industrial sector is quite diverse and can be broken down into several sectors, which are: electronics, agro-industrial, wood base manufacturing, mineral, and biotech. Similar to the rest of the country, small businesses continue to be the foundation of the state’s economy. Small business employs the largest portion of the population. As of 2007, the state's economy employed 786,758 people, which accounted for 3.9% of the country's workforce with annual GDP per capita of 136,417 pesos (12,338 dollars). The average employee wage in Chihuahua is approximately 193 pesos per day. The minimum wage in the state is 61.38 pesos (4.66 dollars) per day except for the municipalities of Guadalupe, Ciudad Juárez, and Praxedis G. Guerrero, which have a minimum wage of 64.76 Mexican pesos (4.92 dollars).

Agriculture is a relatively small component of the state's economy and varies greatly due to the varying climate across the state. The state ranked first in Mexico for the production of the following crops: oats, chile verde, cotton, apples, pecans, and membrillo. The state has an important dairy industry with large milk processors throughout the state. Delicias is home to Alpura, the second-largest dairy company in Mexico. The state has a large logging industry ranking second in oak and third in pine in Mexico. The mining industry is a small but continues to produce large amounts of minerals. The state ranked first place in the country for the production of lead with 53,169 metric tons. Chihuahua ranked second in Mexico for zinc at 150,211 metric tons, silver at 580,271 kg, and gold at 15,221.8 kg.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chihuahua_(state)#Economy

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Mérida, Yucatán

Mérida is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of Yucatán as well as the largest city of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is located in the northwest part of the state, about 35 kilometres (22 miles) from the Gulf of Mexico coast. The city is also the municipal seat of the Municipality of Mérida, which includes the city and the areas around it.

According to the 2010 census, the population of Mérida was 970,377, ranking 12th among the most populous Mexican metropolitan areas. The municipality's area is 858.41 km² (331.43 sq mi). The metropolitan area includes the municipalities of Mérida, Umán and Kanasín and had a population of 1,035,238 in the same 2010 census. It is the largest of the four cities of the world that share the name Mérida, the other three being in Spain, Venezuela, and the Philippines.

The city, like much of the state, has heavy Mayan, Spanish, French, British, and to a lesser extent Dutch influences. Mérida has the highest percentage of indigenous persons of any large city in Mexico with approximately 60% of all inhabitants being of the Maya ethnicity.

History

There were three Spanish conquistadors named "Francisco de Montejo": Francisco de Montejo "el Adelantado" ("The Lieutenant", the eldest); Francisco de Montejo y León "el Mozo" ("The Boy", his son); and Francisco de Montejo "el Sobrino" ("The Nephew"). Mérida was founded in 1542 by Montejo y León ("el Mozo") and named after the town of Mérida in Extremadura, Spain. It was built on the site of the Maya city of T'hó (/d̥ʼχøʼ/), which was also called Ichkanzihóo or Ichcaanzihó (/isʃkan'siχœ/; "City of Five Hills") in reference to its pyramids. T'ho had been a center of Mayan culture and activity for centuries: because of this, some historians consider Mérida the oldest continually-occupied city in the Americas.

Carved Maya stones from ancient T'ho were widely used to build the Spanish colonial buildings that are plentiful in downtown Mérida, and are visible, for instance, in the walls of the main cathedral. Much of Mérida's architecture from the colonial period through the 18th century and 19th century is still standing in the centro historico of the city. From colonial times through the mid-19th century, Mérida was a walled city intended to protect the Peninsular and Criollo residents from periodic revolts by the indigenous Maya. Several of the old Spanish city gates survive, but modern Mérida has expanded well beyond the old city walls.

Late in the 19th century and the early 20th Century, the area surrounding Mérida prospered from the production of henequén. For a brief period, around the turn of the 20th century, Mérida was said to house more millionaires than any other city in the world. The result of this concentration of wealth can still be seen today. Many large and elaborate homes still line the main avenue called Paseo de Montejo, though few are occupied today by individual families. Many of these homes have been restored and now serve as office buildings for banks and insurance companies. Korean immigration to Mexico began in 1905 when more than a thousand people arrived in Yucatan from the city of Incheon. These first Korean migrants settled around Merida as workers in henequen plantations.

Mérida has one of the largest centro histórico districts in the Americas (surpassed only by Mexico City and Havana, Cuba). Colonial homes line the city streets to this day, in various states of disrepair and renovation; the historical center of Mérida is currently undergoing a minor renaissance as more and more people are moving into the old buildings and reviving their former glory.

In August 1993, Pope John Paul II visited the city on his third trip to Mexico. The city has been host to two bilateral United States – Mexico conferences, the first in 1999 (Bill Clinton – Ernesto Zedillo) and the second in 2007 (George W. Bush – Felipe Calderón).

In June 2007, Mérida moved its city museum to the renovated Post Office building next to the downtown market. The Museum of the City of Mérida houses important artifacts from the city's history, as well as an art gallery. Mérida hosted the VI Summit of Association of Caribbean States, in 2014.

Mérida is the cultural and financial capital of the Yucatán Peninsula, as well as the capital city of the state of Yucatán. In recent years, important science competitions and World events have been held in Mérida – FITA Archery World Cup Finals, the International Cosmic Ray Conference, a Physics Olympiad, etc.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_Yucat%C3%A1n